Jan Youtie
Affiliate-LongTerm Res/Collab
- Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter School of Public Policy
- Technology Policy and Assessment Center
Overview
Jan L. Youtie, Ph.D., is director of policy research services and principal research associate in the Economic Development Lab, a unit of Georgia Tech’s Enterprise Innovation Institute. She is the co-founder of the program in Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy and directs the Technology, Policy Assessment Center. She is the Social and Ethical Implications Coordinator for the Southeastern Nanotechnology Infrastructure Corridor. Dr. Youtie’s research focuses on technology-based economic development, advanced manufacturing, emerging technology assessment, bibliometric and patent analysis, and innovation and knowledge measurement and evaluation. She has been an investigator in studies sponsored by the U.S. Department of Commerce, National Science Foundation, European Commission, U.N. Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Aspen Institute, Southern Technology Council, and Georgia Research Alliance among others. Her research received the Lang Rosen Gold Award for best article by the Journal of Technology Transfer, and it also has appeared in Research Policy, Economic Development Quarterly, Journal of Technology Transfer, Technovation, Research Evaluation, Evaluation and Program Planning, Nature Nanotechnology, and many other journals. She has been recognized as one of the top authors in technology and innovation management research by the International Association of Management of Technology. She holds a doctorate in political science from Emory University.
- PhD - Political Science Emory University 1981
- MA - Political Science Emory University 1979
- BS - Political Science Emory University 1977
Interests
- Economic Development and Smart Cities
- Program Evaluation, Public Management and Administration
- Science, Technology, and Innovation Policy
- Emerging Technologies - Innovation
- Evaluation
- Small and Midsize Enterprises
Courses
- PUBP-3130: Research Methods
- PUBP-4010: Policy Task Force I
- PUBP-4020: Policy Task Force II
- PUBP-4260: Econ Dev Policy & PLan
- PUBP-4803: Special Topics
- PUBP-4843: Special Topics
- PUBP-6602: Econ Dev Analy& Practice
- PUBP-6741: Geography of Innovation
- PUBP-8803: Special Topics
Publications
Recent Publications
Journal Articles
- Research Addressing Emerging Technological Ideas Has Greater Scientific Impact
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: July 2019
- Learning about Learning: Patterns of Sharing of Research Knowledge among Education, Border, and Cognitive Science Fields
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: March 2019
- Evaluating the Impact of Manufacturing Extension Services on Establishment Performance
In: Economic Development Quarterly [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
Chapters
- Scientists’ and the Public’s Views of Synthetic Biology
In: Synthetic Biology 2020: Frontiers in Risk Analysis and Governance
Date: 2020
This chapter examines similarities and differences between scientists’ and nonscientists’ views of synthetic biology and the factors that shape them, as well as limitations of available research and the need for more focus on the views of both groups. We combine data from a survey of researchers in synthetic biology and a nationally representative survey of US adults on synthetic biology to compare the characteristics of respondents in each group and how those general characteristics could shape each group’s views. Our analyses found substantial religious and ideological differences between experts and members of the public in the US. We also found that levels of religious guidance and political ideology relate to different perceptions of synthetic biology and in different ways depending on one’s experience as either a researcher in the field or as a member of the public. We call for more, and more detailed, social science research to facilitate effective public engagement that creates space for the variety of views and concerns that will shape synthetic biology and its governance.
View All Details about Scientists’ and the Public’s Views of Synthetic Biology
Other Publications
- 8 Things You Need to Know About the Social Implications of Nanotechnology Research
In: senic.gatech.edu and http://hdl.handle.net/1853/60412
Date: August 2018
This video discusses 8 things to know about the social and ethical implications of conducting nanotechnology research and working on commercial or commercializable product research and development. Facility link:www.senic.gatech.edu Policy link: www.nanopolicy.gatech.edu Framework for this video: Youtie, Jan & Shapira, Philip Journal of Technology Transfer (2017) 42: 1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-016-9518-z. This video was undertaken at Georgia Tech with support of the National Science Foundation under NSF Award #: 1542174, NNCI: Southeastern Nanotechnology Infrastructure Corridor (SENIC). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
All Publications
Books
- The Strength in Numbers: The New Science of Team Science
- Telecommunications Strategy for Economic Development
Journal Articles
- Research Addressing Emerging Technological Ideas Has Greater Scientific Impact
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: July 2019
- Learning about Learning: Patterns of Sharing of Research Knowledge among Education, Border, and Cognitive Science Fields
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: March 2019
- Evaluating the Impact of Manufacturing Extension Services on Establishment Performance
In: Economic Development Quarterly [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Exploring Links between Innovation and Profitability in Georgia Manufacturers
In: Economic Development Quarterly [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
View All Details about Exploring Links between Innovation and Profitability in Georgia Manufacturers
- Mapping the Emergence of International University Research Ventures
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
View All Details about Mapping the Emergence of International University Research Ventures
- National nanotechnology research prominence
In: Technology Analysis & Strategic Management [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
View All Details about National nanotechnology research prominence
- Plans versus Experiences in Transitioning Transnational Education into Research and Economic Development: A Case Study.
In: Science and Public Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Research network emergence: societal issues in nanotechnology and the center for nanotechnology in society
In: Science and Public Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Tech mining to validate and refine a technology roadmap
In: World Patent Information [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
View All Details about Tech mining to validate and refine a technology roadmap
- The Values of Synthetic Biology: Researcher Views of Their Field and Participation in Public Engagement.
In: Bioscience [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- Using webmining to explore Triple Helix influences on growth in small and mid-size firms
In: Technovation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
- When is Science Used in Science Policy
In: Review of Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
View All Details about When is Science Used in Science Policy
- A measure of knowledge flow between specific fields: Implications of interdisciplinarity for impact and funding
In: PLoS One [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Credibility and Use of Scientific and Technical Information in Policy Making: An analysis of the information bases of the National Research Council’s committee reports
- Crossing borders: A citation analysis of connections between Cognitive Science and Educational Research . . . and the fields in between
In: Research Evaluation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Institutionalization of international university research ventures
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
View All Details about Institutionalization of international university research ventures
- Socio-economic impacts and public value of government-funded research: Lessons from four US National Science Foundation initiatives
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
- Tracking researchers and their outputs: New insights from ORCIDs
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
View All Details about Tracking researchers and their outputs: New insights from ORCIDs
- Tracking the emergence of synthetic biology
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
View All Details about Tracking the emergence of synthetic biology
- A bibliometric analysis of the development of next generation active nanotechnologies.
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
- Dueling Co-Authors: How Collaborators Create and Sometimes Solve Contributorship Conflicts
In: Minerva [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
- Early Social Science Research About Big Data
In: Science and Public Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
View All Details about Early Social Science Research About Big Data
- Exploring Public Values Implications of the I-Corps Program
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
View All Details about Exploring Public Values Implications of the I-Corps Program
- How Does National Scientific Funding Support Emerging Interdisciplinary Research: A Comparison Study of Big Data Research in the US and China.
- In Search of Relevance in the Twenty‐First Century
In: Public Administration Review [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
View All Details about In Search of Relevance in the Twenty‐First Century
- Navigating the innovation trajectories of technology by combining specialization score analyses for publications and patents: graphene and nano-enabled drug delivery
- A systematic method to create search strategies for emerging technologies based on the Web of Science: illustrated for ‘Big Data’
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
- Is there a clubbing effect underlying Chinese research citation increases?
In: Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
View All Details about Is there a clubbing effect underlying Chinese research citation increases?
- Research collaboration experiences, good and bad: Dispatches from the front lines
In: Science and Public Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
- Social science contributions compared in synthetic biology and nanotechnology
In: Journal of Responsible Innovation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
View All Details about Social science contributions compared in synthetic biology and nanotechnology
- Trouble in Paradise: Problems in Academic Research Co-Authoring
In: Science and Engineering Ethics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
View All Details about Trouble in Paradise: Problems in Academic Research Co-Authoring
- Using the Wayback Machine to mine websites in the social sciences: A methodological resource
In: Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
- Why do technology firms publish scientific papers? The strategic use of science by small and midsize enterprises in nanotechnology
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
- Acquiring nanotechnology capabilities: role of mergers and acquisitions
In: Technology Analysis & Strategic Management [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
View All Details about Acquiring nanotechnology capabilities: role of mergers and acquisitions
- Drivers of technology adoption—the case of nanomaterials in building construction
In: Technological Forecasting and Social Change [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Inter-industry knowledge flows and sectoral networks in the economy of Malaysia
In: Knowledge Management Research and Practice [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Introduction to Special Issue on Innovative methods for innovation management and policy
In: Technological Forecasting and Social Change [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Learning to play the game: Student publishing as an indicator of future scholarly success.
In: Technological Forecasting and Social Change [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Mapping graphene science and development: Focused research with multiple application areas
In: Bulletin of the Association for Information Science and Technology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Measuring the development of a common scientific lexicon in nanotechnology
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
View All Details about Measuring the development of a common scientific lexicon in nanotechnology
- Patent Overlay Mapping: Visualizing Technological Distance.
In: Journal of the Association for Information Science and Technology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
View All Details about Patent Overlay Mapping: Visualizing Technological Distance.
- Prototypes of emerging metropolitan nanodistricts in the United States and Europe
In: Annals of Economics and Statistics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Signs of Things to Come? What Patent Submissions by Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises Say About Corporate Strategies in Emerging Technologies
In: Technological Forecasting & Social Change [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Social Dynamics of Research Collaboration: norms, practices, and ethical issues in determining co-authorship rights
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- The evolving state-of-the-art in technology transfer research: Revising the contingent effectiveness model
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- The use of citation speed to understand the effects of a multi-institutional science center
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2014
- Bibliographic coupling and network analysis to assess knowledge coalescence in a research center environment
In: Research Evaluation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2013
- Capturing new developments in an emerging technology: an updated search strategy for identifying nanotechnology research outputs.
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2013
- Career-based influences on scientific recognition in the United States and Europe: Longitudinal evidence from curriculum vitae data
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2013
- Entry Strategies in an Emerging Technology: A Cross-Country Study of Early Commercialization by Graphene Firms.
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2013
- Entry Strategies in an Emerging Technology: A Cross-Country Study of Early Commercialization by Graphene Firms.
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2013
- Early patterns of commercial activity in graphene
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
View All Details about Early patterns of commercial activity in graphene
- Nanobiomedical science in China: a research field on the rise
In: Technology Analysis and Strategic Management [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
View All Details about Nanobiomedical science in China: a research field on the rise
- Pathways from discovery to commercialisation: using web sources to track small and medium-sized enterprise strategies in emerging nanotechnologies
In: Technology Analysis and Strategic Management [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
- Program-level assessment of research centers: Contribution of Nanoscale Science and Engineering Centers to US Nanotechnology National Initiative goals
In: Research Evaluation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
- Toward a more precise definition of self-citation
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
View All Details about Toward a more precise definition of self-citation
- Visualising potential innovation pathways in a workshop setting: the case of nano-enabled biosensors.
In: Technology Analysis & Strategic Management [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
- Building Capabilities for Innovation in SMEs: A Cross-Country Comparison of Technology Extension Policies and Progra
In: International Journal of Innovation and Regional Development [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2011
- Nanotechnology Innovation and Policy: Current Strategies and Future Trajectories
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2011
- National innovation systems and the globalization of nanotechnology innovation
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2011
- Perceptions and actions: relationships of views on risk with citation actions of nanotechnology scientists
In: Research Evaluation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2011
- The Use of Environmental Health and Safety Research in Nanotechnology Research
In: Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2011
- Federally-Sponsored Multidisciplinary Research Centers: Learning, Evaluation, and Vicious Circles
In: Evaluation and Program Planning [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2010
- Is there a shift to “active nanostructures”?
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2010
View All Details about Is there a shift to “active nanostructures”?
- Knowledge, Capabilities and Manufacturing Innovation: A USA-Europe Comparison
In: Regional Studies [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2010
View All Details about Knowledge, Capabilities and Manufacturing Innovation: A USA-Europe Comparison
- The Emergence of Social Science Research in Nanotechnology
In: Scientometrics [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2010
View All Details about The Emergence of Social Science Research in Nanotechnology
- How interdisciplinary is nanotechnology?
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2009
View All Details about How interdisciplinary is nanotechnology?
- Where does nanotechnology belong in the map of science?
In: Nature Nanotechnology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2009
View All Details about Where does nanotechnology belong in the map of science?
- . Building an innovation hub: A case study of the transformation of university roles in regional technological and economic development
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
- Assessing the Nature of Nanotechnology: Can We Uncover an Emerging General Purpose Technology?
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
- Learning to Innovate: Building Regional Technology Development Learning Networks in Midsized Cities
In: European Planning Studies [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
- Mapping the Nanotechnology Enterprise: A Multi-indicator Analysis of Emerging Nanodisticts in the US South
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
- Nanodistricts in the United States
In: Economic Development Quarterly [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
- Nanotechnology publications and citations by leading countries and blocs
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
View All Details about Nanotechnology publications and citations by leading countries and blocs
- Refining search terms for nanotechnology
In: Journal of Nanoparticle Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2008
View All Details about Refining search terms for nanotechnology
- A brief history of the future of manufacturing: US manufacturing technology forecasts in retrospective, 1950-present
In: International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2007
- Supply, Demand, and ICT-based Services: A Local Level Perspective
In: Telecommunications Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2007
View All Details about Supply, Demand, and ICT-based Services: A Local Level Perspective
- The Future of Manufacturing
In: International Journal of Foresight and Innovation Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2007
- Institutionalization of University Research Centers: The Case of the National Cooperative Program in Infertility Research
In: Technovation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2006
- Knowledge Economy Measurement: Methods, Results and Insights from the Malaysian Knowledge Content Study
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2006
- Measures for knowledge-based economic development: Introducing data mining techniques to economic developers in the state of Georgia and the US South
In: Technological Forecasting and Social Change [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2006
- Linking Research Production and Development Outcomes at the Regional Level
In: Research Evaluation [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2003
View All Details about Linking Research Production and Development Outcomes at the Regional Level
- Teaching with Internet and Multimedia Technologies
In: Journal of Planning Education and Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2001
View All Details about Teaching with Internet and Multimedia Technologies
- Field of Dreams Revisited: Economic Development and Telecommunications in LaGrange, Georgia
In: Economic Development Quarterly [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2000
- Using an Evaluability Assessment to Select Methods for Evaluating State Technology Development Programs: The Case of the Georgia Research Alliance
In: Evaluation and Program Planning [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1999
- Contrasting perspectives on the evaluation of industrial modernization: Introduction to the symposium
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1998
- Evaluating Industrial Modernization: Methods, Results and Insights from the Georgia Manufacturing Extension Alliance
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1998
- Evaluation of Industrial Modernization Programs: A Field Agent’s Perspective
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1998
View All Details about Evaluation of Industrial Modernization Programs: A Field Agent’s Perspective
- Coordinating Industrial Modernization Services: Impacts and Insights from the U.S. Manufacturing Extension Partnership
In: Journal of Technology Transfer [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1997
- Manufacturing partnerships: Evaluation in the context of government reform
In: Evaluation and Program Planning [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1997
View All Details about Manufacturing partnerships: Evaluation in the context of government reform
- Current Practices in the Evaluation of U.S. Industrial Modernization Programs
In: Research Policy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1996
View All Details about Current Practices in the Evaluation of U.S. Industrial Modernization Programs
- Policy Strategies Along the Information Superhighway
In: Review of Policy Research [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1995
View All Details about Policy Strategies Along the Information Superhighway
- Telecommunications and Economic Development: Assessing Public Strategies
In: Industrial and Corporate Change [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 1995
View All Details about Telecommunications and Economic Development: Assessing Public Strategies
Chapters
- Scientists’ and the Public’s Views of Synthetic Biology
In: Synthetic Biology 2020: Frontiers in Risk Analysis and Governance
Date: 2020
This chapter examines similarities and differences between scientists’ and nonscientists’ views of synthetic biology and the factors that shape them, as well as limitations of available research and the need for more focus on the views of both groups. We combine data from a survey of researchers in synthetic biology and a nationally representative survey of US adults on synthetic biology to compare the characteristics of respondents in each group and how those general characteristics could shape each group’s views. Our analyses found substantial religious and ideological differences between experts and members of the public in the US. We also found that levels of religious guidance and political ideology relate to different perceptions of synthetic biology and in different ways depending on one’s experience as either a researcher in the field or as a member of the public. We call for more, and more detailed, social science research to facilitate effective public engagement that creates space for the variety of views and concerns that will shape synthetic biology and its governance.
View All Details about Scientists’ and the Public’s Views of Synthetic Biology
- Lessons from 10 years of nanotechnology bibliometric analysis
In: Nanotechnology Environmental Health and Safety: Risks, Regulation, and Management (Third Edition) [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2018
View All Details about Lessons from 10 years of nanotechnology bibliometric analysis
- The next production revolution and institutions for technology diffusion
In: The Next Production Revolution: Implications for Governments and Business [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
View All Details about The next production revolution and institutions for technology diffusion
- Visual analysis of patent data through global maps and overlays
In: Current Challenges in Patent Information Retrieval [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2017
View All Details about Visual analysis of patent data through global maps and overlays
- The impact of technology and innovation advisory service
In: Handbook on Innovation Policy Impact [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2016
View All Details about The impact of technology and innovation advisory service
- The economic contributions of nanotechnology to green and sustainable growth
In: Green Processes for Nanotechnology [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2015
View All Details about The economic contributions of nanotechnology to green and sustainable growth
- Corporate Strategies in Emerging Technologies: The Case of Chinese Firms and Energy Storage-Related Nanotechnology Applications
In: Shaping Emerging Technologies: Governance, Innovation, Discourse [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2013
- A Trans-Atlantic Conversation on Responsible Innovation and Responsible Governance
In: Little by Little: Expansions of Nanoscience and Emerging Technologies [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
- Using Large-scale Databases to Understand the Trajectories of Emerging Technologies
In: Little by Little: Expansions of Nanoscience and Emerging Technologies [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2012
- Metropolitan Development of Nanotechnology: Concentration or Dispersion?
In: The Yearbook on Nanotechnology in Society: Volume 2 Equity and Equality [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2011
View All Details about Metropolitan Development of Nanotechnology: Concentration or Dispersion?
- The Innovation System and Innovation Policy in the United States
In: Competing for Global Innovation Leadership: Innovation Systems and Policies in the USA, EU and Asia [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2010
View All Details about The Innovation System and Innovation Policy in the United States
- Innovation Strategies and Manufacturing Practices: Insights from the 2005 Georgia Manufacturing Survey
In: Small and Medium-sized Enterprises and the Global Economy [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2007
- Reducing Barriers to User Access: The LaGrange Public Internet Initiative
In: Media Access: Social and Psychological Dimensions of New Technology Use [Peer Reviewed]
Date: 2004
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Reports
- Georgia Manufacturing Survey 2018: Securing Georgia’s Manufacturing Future
In: gms-ei2.org
Date: 2018
View All Details about Georgia Manufacturing Survey 2018: Securing Georgia’s Manufacturing Future
Other Publications
- 8 Things You Need to Know About the Social Implications of Nanotechnology Research
In: senic.gatech.edu and http://hdl.handle.net/1853/60412
Date: August 2018
This video discusses 8 things to know about the social and ethical implications of conducting nanotechnology research and working on commercial or commercializable product research and development. Facility link:www.senic.gatech.edu Policy link: www.nanopolicy.gatech.edu Framework for this video: Youtie, Jan & Shapira, Philip Journal of Technology Transfer (2017) 42: 1362. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10961-016-9518-z. This video was undertaken at Georgia Tech with support of the National Science Foundation under NSF Award #: 1542174, NNCI: Southeastern Nanotechnology Infrastructure Corridor (SENIC). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.